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For those with no prior knowledge of foodborne viruses, learn how they are transmitted, spread via food, detected and control strategies.

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Raising awareness of foodborne viruses in the food industry

What you need to know

Are you a retailer, supplier, processor or producer of foods? Do you work in catering or food service? Then foodborne viruses should be of concern to you and your workforce. Check out some facts about viruses below and why you need to safeguard against them.

Norovirus

Also known as stomach flu and the Winter vomiting bug, Norovirus is the most contagious disease known to man. Most infections are caused by person-to-person contact, but it can also be transmitted easily through the food supply chain, especially where the product is ready-to-eat or is eaten raw, such as salad vegetables and soft berry fruits. Onset of symptoms is rapid (12-24h) and include nausea, projectile vomiting and diarrhoea, however symptoms usually last only a couple of days. The United Kingdom Food Standards Agency recently classed Norovirus as the highest burden in terms of cost to the health service - nearly double that of Campylobacter and the top of the list of the 13 main foodborne pathogens in many other risk categories. Click on the image for more info.

Hepatitis A virus

As the name suggests, this virus can cause infection in the liver. It can be spread by the faecal-oral route and is mainly transmitted by contaminated water sources, however it is also transmitted by foods if they become contaminated with the virus - the foods mainly associated with foodborne outbreaks have been frozen berries, but other food items have been implicated. It can take up to 50 days before symptoms appear, making the source difficult to trace when related to food items which have been contaminated. Click on the image for more info.

Hepatitis E virus

The symptoms of Hepatitis E virus are very similar in nature to that of Hepatitis A virus, as both can infect the liver, however the main transmission route is very different. Unlike the Norovirus and Hepatitis A virus which originate in humans and only infect humans, Hepatitis E virus is a zoonotic disease, that is it can spread from animals to humans. The main transmission route for Hepatitis E virus is through the pork supply chain. Consumption of raw or undercooked pork products can increase the risk of infection. There has been an increase in cases in the UK in recent years which may be due to the consumption of contaminated pork products from European countries. Click on the image for more info.

Other viruses

There are other virus types which can be food borne in addition to the 3 main viruses mentioned here. Enterovirus, sapovirus, rotavirus, astrovirus and adenovirus can all be transmitted by food. Poliovirus is an enterovirus and has been associated with foodborne transmission. There is now concern about the re-emergence of poliovirus in some countries after a successful global vaccination program had eradicated it from several countries.

About me

Martin D'Agostino has worked in the area of food microbiology since 1991. Experienced (>25 years) food virologist with an emphasis on meeting the challenges posed by the transmission of enteric viruses in food supply chains - principally Norovirus, Hepatitis A virus and Hepatitis E virus. Author in over 35 publications. Wide-ranging network of academic, industry partners and governmental bodies including the Food Standards Agency, BMPA, FDF, Safefood EU and Public Health England (now UKHSA). Extensive experience in presenting at seminars, conferences and webinars, both in the UK and internationally. Point of contact for the food industry on all issues related to foodborne viruses & SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19). Lead bid writer and coordinator / assistant coordinator on collaborative research projects for major research funders, including the Food Standards Agency, European Framework projects (EFSA) and UK Technology Strategy Board (Innovate UK).

Publications

A selection of publications from work carried out over the past 20 years in the area of food microbiology and virology.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) was detected in frozen strawberries which had been implicated in a large outbreak of hepatitis A in 1997. The sample was analysed after over 20 years of storage, following a standard method not available at the time of the outbreak. This is the first study in which the HAV associated with the 1997 outbreak of foodborne hepatitis has finally been detected.

Detection of Hepatitis A Virus in Strawberries Implicated in an Outbreak in the USA in 1997 Cook, N., Vickers-Smith, L. & D’Agostino, M. Detection of Hepatitis A Virus in Strawberries Implicated in an Outbreak in the USA in 1997. Food Environ Virol 13, 421–422 (2021).

Fresh / frozen raspberries and lettuce were sampled from UK retail outlets over a 13 months, and tested for Norovirus. 5.3% of lettuce, 2.3% of fresh raspberry, and 3.6% of frozen raspberry samples were Norovirus-positive. The data raises whether food safety management systems are being effectively implemented in these food supply chains.

Prevalence of Norovirus in produce sold at retail in the United Kingdom Nigel Cook, Luminita Williams, Martin D'Agostino, Prevalence of Norovirus in produce sold at retail in the United Kingdom, Food Microbiology, Volume 79, 2019, Pages 85-89, ISSN 0740-0020,

.... HEV appears common in pigs (although infected pigs do not show clinical signs), and evidence suggests that a number of hepatitis E cases have been associated with the consumption of undercooked pork meat and products...

Potential Approaches to Assess the Infectivity of Hepatitis E Virus in Pork Products: A Review Cook, N., D’Agostino, M. and Johne, R. (2017) ‘Potential Approaches to Assess the Infectivity of Hepatitis E Virus in Pork Products: A Review’, Food and environmental virology, 9(3), pp. 243–255.

.... In the review, information is given for the main foodborne viruses, implicated virus species, and food matrices involved, some history data are given, as well as modes of transmission, and sources..

Viral Contamination of Food T. Petrović, M. D'Agostino, Chapter 5 - Viral Contamination of Food, Editor(s): Jorge Barros-Velázquez, Antimicrobial Food Packaging, Academic Press, 2016, Pages 65-79, ISBN 9780128007235, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800723-5.00005-X.

This study condenses data acquired during investigations of the virological quality of irrigation water used in production of fresh produce. The data demonstrates that irrigation water used in primary production is an important vehicle of viral contamination for fresh produce, and thus is a critical control point which should be integrated into food safety management systems for viruses.

Virological Quality of Irrigation Water in Leafy Green Vegetables and Berry Fruits Production Chains Kokkinos, P. et al. (2017) ‘Virological Quality of Irrigation Water in Leafy Green Vegetables and Berry Fruits Production Chains’, Food and environmental virology, 9(1), pp. 72–78.

An alternative method for detection of Salmonella spp. in animal feed, based on the use of loop-mediated amplification (LAMP) in conjunction with a standard culturing procedure, was compared with the standard ISO 6579 as reference method, using soya meal as the test matrix

Validation of a Loop-Mediated Amplification/ISO 6579-Based Method for Analysing Soya Meal for the Presence of Salmonella enterica D’Agostino, M. et al. (2016) ‘Validation of a Loop-Mediated Amplification/ISO 6579-Based Method for Analysing Soya Meal for the Presence of Salmonella enterica’, Food analytical methods, 9(11), pp. 2979–2985.

A rapid test has been developed for direct detection of thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. in boot swab samples, thus bypassing culture enrichment or DNA extraction. The test has potential to be carried out by farm personnel on site.

An immunomagnetic separation/loop-mediated isothermal amplification method for rapid direct detection of thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. during poultry production M.R. Romero, M. D’Agostino, A. Perez Arias, S. Robles, C. Fernandez Casado, L. Orueta Iturbe,O. Gurrutxaga Lerma, M. Andreou and N. Cook. Journal of Applied Microbiology 120, 469--477 © 2015 The Society for Applied Microbiology

This study aimed to critically review methods for ranking risks related to food safety and dietary hazards on the basis of their anticipated human health impacts. A literature review was performed to identify and characterize methods for risk ranking from the fields of food, environmental science and socio-economic sciences.

Critical review of methods for risk ranking of food related hazards, based on risks for human health Van der Fels-Klerx, H.J. et al. (2018) ‘Critical review of methods for risk ranking of food-related hazards, based on risks for human health’, Critical reviews in food science and nutrition, 58(2), pp. 178–193

The aim of this study was to verify that a sample process control virus (SPCV) can be recovered after sample storage, and thus indicate the effective recovery of enteric viruses

Monitoring of Extraction Efficiency by a Sample Process Control Virus Added Immediately Upon Sample Receipt Ruhanya, V. et al. (2015) ‘Monitoring of Extraction Efficiency by a Sample Process Control Virus Added Immediately Upon Sample Receipt’, Food and environmental virology, 7(4), pp. 413–416

In recent years, numerous foodborne outbreaks due to consumption of berry fruit contaminated by human enteric viruses have been reported. This European multinational study investigated possible contamination routes by monitoring the entire food chain for a panel of human and animal enteric viruses.

Tracing enteric viruses in the European berry fruit supply chain Maunula, L. et al. (2013) ‘Tracing enteric viruses in the European berry fruit supply chain’, International journal of food microbiology, 167(2), pp. 177–185

Molecular Microbial Diagnostic Methods: Pathways to Implementation for the Food and Water Industry was developed by recognized and experienced highlevel scientists. It's a comprehensive and detailed reference that uncovers industry needs for the use of molecular methods by providing a brief history of water and food analysis for the pathogens of concern.

Molecular Microbial Diagnostic Methods : Pathways to Implementation for the Food and Water Industries Cook, N. et al. (2016) Molecular microbial diagnostic methods : pathways to implementation for the food and water industries / edited by Nigel Cook, Martin D’Agostino, K. Clive Thompson ; contributors Cristina Barbosa [and twenty three others]. Edited by N. Cook, M. D’Agostino, and K.C. Thompson. Amsterdam, [Netherlands: Academic Press.